Chapter 4. Trait Approaches
1. Describe the three steps of the Classical Conditioning Model (Pavlov). Provide a communication example using this model.
a. The first step of classical conditioning is when the unconditioned stimulus produces the unconditioned response. The second step adds in the conditioned stimulus to the unconditioned stimulus to produce the unconditioned response. The third and final step is the conditioned step produces the conditioned response
3. Describe the Contextual, Trait and State views of behavior. What is the Cross Situational Consistency issue? What are the major positions on the cross-situational consistency issue?
a. The contextual view says that behavior varies across contexts. The trait view says that behaviors are consistent across contexts. The state view says that behavior is a result of specific time and place variables. [CROSS SITUATIONAL CONSISTIENCY ISSUE?] The first major position of the cross-situational consistency issue is the situation position which says that behavior is shaped by situation. The trait position says that individual predispositions explain behavior. The interactionist position says that behavior is the joint product of traits and situational variables.
4. What are the four types of Communication Apprehension (CA)? What are the manifestations of CA? What are the consequences of having high CA?
a. The first type is traitlike CA, in which people manifest a personality trait of being afraid to communicate. The second trait is context-based CA, in which people are scared depending on the context that the situation occurs in. The third is audience-based CA, in which a specific person or group makes someone nervous. The final is situational CA.
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Chapter 4. Trait Approaches
1. Describe the three steps of the Classical Conditioning Model (Pavlov). Provide a communication example using this model.
** Emphasizes stimulus – respond to new stimulus in same way as responded to an original stimulus. Pavlov – dog, meat, and salivation with bell. Replaces meat with bell as a stimulus. Ex: Associate a product with a beautiful woman. Steps: 1) US → UR 2) US + CS → UR 3) CS → CR
2. Describe the essential aspects of the Operant Conditioning Model (Skinner). Provide a communication example using this model. What is the major difference between the Classical and Operant models? How do these models differ from the theories presented in the chapter?
** Emphasizes response – how reward/punishment increases/decreases response. Used in animal training. When communicating, nods, etc. act as a reward – can make a person begin saying more positive/negative thing about a certain topic.
3. Describe the Contextual, Trait and State views of behavior. What is the Cross Situational Consistency issue? What are the major positions on the cross-situational consistency issue?
**How do we explain peoples’ behavior across diff contexts (situations) consistency issue = one theory has not proved to be consistent for all situations. Trait – personality test will predict their behavior. Contextual - people act differently when they are in different contexts – intimate vs. with family or professor. Across contexts, ppl communicate differently. State – every speaking situation is unique. To understand a person’s comm. Behavior, you need to understand the variables in that state/situation, generalization = impossible, so this theory is not good b/c it is hard to generalize to a large group of ppl. Interaction – take into account context and ppl’s traits.
4. What are the four types of Communication Apprehension (CA) (stage Fright) ? What are the manifestations of CA? What are the consequences of having high CA?
**Types = 1) trait, use CA scale, classify ppl as being high, moderate or low. Scared to communicate with ANYONE ANYWHERE (rare). 2) context – depending on the situation, you get more nervous, for example, in a court room (common) 3) Audience-based = you may be scared whenever your boss is present, doesn’t matter where it is, matters WHO it is. 4) Situational = a unique thing - a certain interview that decides your fate = you get scared. Generally you are scared when you know you are going to be judged, but you don’t know how well you are going to do.
5. What does Norton’s model of Communicator Style focus upon? One aspect of Communicator Style is Communicator Image. Describe the major traits reflecting Communicator Image.
**Focus on style vs. what person says. Ex: vote for Obama instead of McCain because his style is less controlled, etc. Communicator Image = Impression leaving, contentious, open, dramatic, dominant, precise, attentive, animated.
6. What is Self-Disclosure (SD)? What is reciprocity and how does it relate to SD? What is the role of SD in relational development; i.e., the progression from stranger to friend to intimate? What are the dimensions of SD?
**SD = info that someone else would not know unless you revealed it. 2 important dimensions= depth (intimacy) and breadth (range of topics) of what you self-disclose about. Why do we study it? W/o it, relationships cannot progress to levels of greater intimacy. How do we explain the continuations of self-disclosure from stranger to friend. *Reciprocity = If you disclose something, I feel pressure to reciprocate with how I feel about the same topic → relationship develops. Women self-disclose more than men.
7. Name and describe the three types of speakers identified in Hart’s Rhetorical Sensitivity Theory?
**Rhetorically sensitive communicator = adapts to listener. Empathizes w/ them, and presents their ides in ways that fit the background and interests of the listener w/o sacrificing their integrity. Respects others’ pov w/o relinquishing their own. Reflector = adapts too much, gains self-esteem through positive reactions so becomes a yes-man, sacrifices integrity. Noble Self – is totally honest, but does not adapt to the listener. Think they are good communicators, but in reality they are insensitive.
8. Name and describe the three components of Communication Competence (Spitzberg’s Theory of Communication Competence).
**1)knowledge, 2)skill, 3)motivation. What constitutes a good communicator in different situations = knowledge, but must have the skills to do it, motivation to see it through.
9. What is Interaction Involvement? What are its main characteristics?
** Took idea of ego involvement, applied it to an interactional situation = being involved when you communicate with another person. Characteristics = attentive, perceptive, responsive.
10. Describe Aggression Traits Theory (Infante). What are the characteristics of an Assertive Communicator? an Argumentative Communicator? a Hostile Communicator? an Aggressive Communicator? What are some consequences of aggressive communication? What are some possible causes of aggressive communication?
**READ TEXT. Hostile and Aggressive = negative. Assertiveness and argumentativeness = positive. Assertive – similar to rhetorically sensitive comm. Adapts and respects others’ ideas w/o compromising their own. Argumentativeness – ability to use reason, logic and argument to support/ defend a POV. Hostility – anger when communicating. Yelling, etc. Aggressiveness – the worst. They don’t have to show anger, but they are purposefully trying to inflict harm on others “you’re stupid, worthless.” What about aggressiveness and interpersonal relationships? Causes = this person lacks argumentative skill, so just attacks opponent. Also genetic explanation, social learning, disdain, repressed hostility.
11. What are characteristics of an Affirming Communication Style during an argument?
**straightforward in notes – high in argumentativeness, low in verbal aggressiveness, keep your cool, be personable and approachable, be attentive.
What is difference btwn. Classical and operant and theories in text? Directly observable vs. more psychological characteristics (cognitive theories).
Chapter 5. Persuasion Approaches
1. What are attitudes, beliefs and values?
**Belief – perception that something exists or is true. Attitude – positive feeling you have about people, things, ideas. Value – belief that is so important it guides your life. Try to live by your values, they are goals u try to achieve.
2. Personality traits and persuasion: What trait was Hovland trying to find? Did he find it? Define and present the research findings regarding self-esteem, dogmatism, machiavellianism, cognitive complexity, and need for social approval.
**Hovland = part of US propaganda in WWII. Looking for the persuasability trait (a scale that could identify someone who was easy to persuade vs. difficult to persuade.) Self – esteem: high self-esteem = more difficult to persuade. Dogmatism – authoritarianism. Tried to understand concentration camps. This person has blind obedience to authority. Covers both left and right tendencies to follow authority. High Dogma – difficult to persuade except by authorities who they respect. Low dogma – question what leaders say. High Machiavellian (high mach) – pertains primarily to speaker. The ends justify the means. Less hesitancy about lying, threatening, etc. Cognitive complexity – construct theory. People tend to be of two types – simple and complex. Simple – few constructs to make sense of things in the world, a persons behavior = good/bad. Complex – look at world thru variables (psychological, economic, etc.). More persuasive speakers than simple ppl. More effective because they can adapt their messages to POV of receiver. Need for social approval – likely to succumb to whatever a speaker tells them as long as they get approval for their behavior, even if it is something they don’t want. (Reflector).
3. How are fear appeals used? Explain the Curvilinear Hypothesis. Explain the Drive to Reduce Fear, Level of Resistance, Parallel Response, Protection Motivation and Threat Control explanations of fear appeals. (The last five explanations are in the text.)
Used = you are vulnerable to a threat, must reduce your vulnerability by listening to what I have to say. CH = Moderate fear messages are most effective, too high = ppl back out, too low = too weak. *SEE TEXT
4. Define evidence. What persuasive effect does evidence alone have? What are the effects of evidence and source credibility, delivery, and prior familiarity?
Evidence = testimony to support your argument. Evidence alone = does not necessarily increase persuasiveness. Evidence has no impact when the message is poorly delivered. “Old” evidence has little effect, and evidence is more effective when delivered by someone with low credibility.
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